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Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz - KFU

Brandt Stefan, 2017

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Imperialism and Ideology – Becoming a World Power

Manifest destiny, 19th century  America became world power, 1780  US was founded, since then it became bigger and bigger, 1820s The Monroe Doctrine: Policy of mutual non-interferance between America and European nations (1823), dont colonize land in North or South America!, Aim Keep European Nations from gaining Control in any part of America, named after JAMES MONROE, Democratic-Republican, 5th president of US, Founding Father,

Imperalism and Wetward Movement, everything west of Appalachain Mountains, lots of different Tribes of the Indian Nation, US Policy towards native Americans  Indian wars, 1830s  Indian removal act, Andrew Jackson, Indians;Native Americans had to leave homegrounds and were forced to go into Reservation camps, 1827 the Indian tribe Cherokee declared themselves a sovereign Nation, independant Nation for short while, had constitution, government, laws, law suit from 1831; John Ross (principal Chief of Cherokee), Cherokee were expelled westward, Cherokee was part of 5 Civilized Tribes, still the smallest tribe, 563 native american tribes today in us!,

series of forced relocations of Native Americans in the USA following the Indian Removal Act in 1831  The Trail of Tears!, 60000 Natives died, native americans also had african-american, black slaves!

New US Imperalism (expand sphere without any regard of other nations), began in 1890s, THEODORE „TEDDY“ ROOSEVELT is leading figure in the new imperalism, Republican, in Charge of Department of Navy, start of spanish-american war, ROUGH RIDERS, he was national Icon, became Governor of New York, became US vice president after McKinely  shot, US president from 1901-1909,

  • Hawaii, important economic Position in transcontinental trade route; Pacific, stop for merchant vessels, was considered independant and sovereign Nation, 1893  queen was overthrown in a coup d´état „comittee of safety“, US Marines were involved, Hawaii Comes under US protection, Grover Cleveland was President, Democrat, was opposed to Intervention in Hawaii, 1897: President William McKinely, Republican, strongly Imperialist, signed „Newland Resolution“  led to Annexation of Hawai  US protectorate, Hawaii became 50th US state in 1959

  • Cuba, spanish colony for a long time, also retained Close economic Relations to the USA, sugarcane plantations, Cuban nationalists declare Independence, war with spain, General Weyler (The Butcher) puts down resistance, 1898  US sent warship Maine to Cuba, havana, ship explodes  Spanish – American War 1898, US Jingoism  war enthusiasm, agressive nationalism, Puerto Rico was annexaded in 1898, US protectorate,

  • Philippines, Insurrection against Spanish colonizerd 1896.1897, leader called US for help, considering them allies, Treaty of Paris  End of Spanish-American War, USA buy Philippines, Puerto and Guana become US protectorates, Cuba becomes Independent, Philippine-American War, 1899,

Boxer Rebellion, China, Nationalist and anti-foreignist uprising, organized by secret Society „RIghteous and Harmonious Fists“  killed foreigns  Eight Nation Alliance, Troops to China to Control Country, USA gained Access to market in China

Construction of the Panama Canal, US treaty with Panama, build in 1903-1914, 80 km Connection Pacific and Atlantic Ocean,

Main Reasons of US Rise to World Power:

New Imperialism Worldwide  also in Britain, other countries, Military competition between world wars, Building up of new Navy, Roosevelt was in Charge of Navy,

World War 1: 1914-1918, USA become involved from 1917 to 1918, Woodrow Wilson President, Democrat (were conservative, wanted to Keep slavery), „War should bring Democracy and Reform to the world“, 1920, economic boom, 1929  great Depression, stock market Crash, Black Tuesday!, unemployment, worldwide economic Depression, 1930s: The Red Decade, President 1933 Franklin Deland Roosevelt (FDR), Democrat, achievement: „The New Deal“  progran to restoreUS economy, the three R s: Relief, Recovery, Reform


World War 2: 1939-1945, Two Major Military alliances: THE ALLIES  Poland, France, Great Britain, USA, USSR, THE AXIS  Germany, Italy, Japan, Iconic Images  often raising a flag, US entered World War 2 after PEARL HARBOR, Hawaii, US Navy base, attack on Pearl Harbor by Japanese soldiers, Japanese People came into camps, May 8th 1945 „end“ of World War, VE-Day (Victory over Europe), Aug 14th, VJ-Day (Victory over Japan),

Sovjet Union (USSR)  different economic System, no Democracy, 1943 Mission to Moscow, pro-communist-movie, Sovjet Union wasnt really negatively seen by Americans, before cold war, USSR was seen as allie, fight agains Fascism together, after WW2  US became Anti-Communism, 1951Mickey Spilane, Author, One Lonely Night, against „Commies“, Wave of Anti-Communism  triggered by Cold War, Soviet Expansionism since late 1930s, expanded territory significantly, Communists win Civil War in China, Mao Zedong, communist north Korea – democratic south Korea,

The Cold War: was not real war, Nikita Krushchov, soviet leader „we will bury you“, threatened US, ! continuing state of political conflict between Superpowers, Military Tension, Proxy War (Stellvertreterkrieg, Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan), Economic Competition, Start: 1946!, the Iron Curtain, between East (communist) – West (democratic), Gorbatchow: Perestroika and Glasnost, Fall of the Berlin Wall and the Iron Curtain in 1989  END!!

Dissolution of USSR, Superpower falls apart 1991 End of Cold War!

American Postwar, RED SCARE (1940s, 1950s)  creating fear against People who are seen to be evil, increase of anti-communist, anyone was suspected to be spy of communists, Joseph McCarthy, Republican, was Pilot in US Marines, obsessive anti-communism, produced a list of 205 „communists“, wouldnt give the list away  McCarthyism, Cases of Espionage Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, Alger Hiss

Hollywood became anti-communist, films, i married a communist, Blockbusters, 1950s  the paranoid fifties, Main symbol: HUAC (House of un-American Activities Committee), investigated potential communists, dealing with Subversion of american Society by communists, Goal: confess, name names of other communists, „Hollywood Ten“, writers and actors were blacklisted,

J. EDGAR HOOVER: first Chief of FBI, Federal Bureau of Investigation, investigate possible communists, gay People, enemies of the state, FBI  Fidelity, Bravery, , how to recognize a communist,

still anti-communist rhetoric today, People believe that Obama is communist,

Vietnam War (1955-1975), Military conflict between North (China) and South Vietnam (USA, anti-communist countries), ended with fall of Salgon, Journalism  Iconic Images, photo of someone who is being shot,

Soviet war in Afghanistan, Military Cconflict between Aghan Forces(soviet) and Muhahidenn (financed by USA)

War on Terror 2001, Global War on Terrorism

11th of September 2001!! Terrorist Attack on World Trade Center



recent Terrorist Attacks  San Bernadino Shooting, 14 people killed, Terrorist attack on non-profit Center for People with disabilities, Muslim,

gun violence  11.101 killed

terrorism17 killed

Deadliest Mass-Shooting in the US by one Shooter  June 2016, Orlando Mass Shooting, 49 people killed, by a 29-year old security guard in gay night Club


Domesticity, Sexuality, Consumer Culture

! Betty Boop (Cartoon figure, 1930!)

Clinton 2.7 million more, populat vote, narrow victories for Trump in „Rust Belt“  Northern East, car factories, coal industry, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin Jill Stein (collected Money, Green Party, presidential nominee, petitioned a Recount! In the states that Trump won in the Rust Belt)

Gender Issues

19th century, Images  The Vicotrian Mother; woman going to church, taking care of husband; elegant, The Suffregist; fightig for Wahlrecht;hard; cold woman,

70 percent of females were employed as Servants (also in Offices, classrooms, ) only 20 percent of women worked in professional Jobs in 1900, Education  women werent admitted in uni,

Turn of century  Picture, woman reading newspaper, man ironing, „Reversed Roles“, „The new Woman“, demand more rights, voting, Queer Subcultures in Urban Areas, Chicago, New York, Centres of Queer Subculture,

Roaring 1920s, African American Music spread, -> Jazz Age, started in New Orleans, Cultural Centre  Harlem, „Harlem Rennaissance“ NYC, ended with outbreak of Great Depression, Bessie Smith, highest paid African American Performer, Duke Ellington, most popular medium in 20,30,40s  Radio, first Commercial Radio Station  KDKA, Radio became mass medium, Pittsburgh, 40 million Radios in 1947 in US, 1920s  THE PROHIBITION ERA, national ban on alcohol 1920-1933, „The Noble Experiment“, because alcohol is not a good Thing, alcoholic abuse, to Keep People from doing bad Things, drunk, agressive, initiated by a number of conservative Groups, Womans Christian temperance Union, led to increased criminal activity, smuggle alcohol, led to „Speakeasy-Clubs“, bars where you could drink alcohol, wasnt legal, needed codeword, 30000 such Clubs in NYC!, shift in Gender Roles, „The Flapper“  new woman, boyish hair, Party Girl, emanzipated, dominated the media, women saw opportunity to become more confident through becoming flapper,

Conservative Backlash after 1945, women were in workforce because of war, women would go back to household, man back to work, „The Cult of Domesticity“, women  household, Family,! Betty Crocker  1950s second (after Elenor Roosevelt) best known woman, associated with COOKING!!, fictional character, symbolized perfect american housewife, main Task  teach American women to bake the perfect cake, later personified by Adelaine Cumming, Cook Book, dominant ideal for women was housewife and mother stayed at home, was all about husband, statistics on marriage in 1950  average age 22,8 males, 20,3 years women,

1950s AGE OF TELEVISION, in 1950: 10 percent owned a tv, in 1960: 90 percent!!, first electromechanical Television System in 1884, first Commercial Television set  1928, was not Commercial, „big three“  abc, cbs, nbc, gigantic boom,

50s  Eisenhower Era, Dwight D. Eisenhower (US President, Republican, General during WW2, „I like Ike!“  campaign for 1953, Elefant (Rep) and Donkey (Demo),

Rise of Christian Values in 50s, staunchly anti-communist and Christian, USA  „God`s Country“, Soviet  Atheist, Drive-In Chruches!!, congress adds the Phrase „under God“ to the Pledge of Allegiance, Christianity <-> Cold War, „in God we trust“ is added to Dollar notes, !William Billy Graham, personally supported Nixon and George W Bush, Evangeical Christian Leader, Jesus Christ is product that Needs to be sold, number 7 on most widely admired People of 20th century,

Television Programms  popular, „The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet“ Sitcom, real-life Nelson Family and „The Lone Ranger“  Western, Consumer Culture, everything targeted the Housewife, Special tv Shows for housewifes  Soap Operas, Daytime Drama, intent was to sell detergents, „General Hospital“, „Dallas“, Game Shows about products, guess Price, „The Price is right“, Commercial Show praising products, marketed as a game Show, idea  Consumerism = Happiness, new Invention in 50s  credit Card, Diners credit Card,

Consumer Culture and Health, Smoking <-> health, „Smoking is good for your health“

New Standards of Beauty, „Rosie the Riveter“, Marrie van Doren; Marilyn Monroe, Housewife, Cult of Domesticity  Doris Day!!, actress, 50s;60s, with Rock Hudson, symbolized perfect couple, Fashion ideal, „The New Look“, Christian Dior, Pin-Up Art  Mass produced Picture, for informal Display, Betty Grable, higehest paid woman, „Mammary Madness“  big-chested women, 4.5 million breast pads were sold in US in 1948, The Marketing of Sexuality “Kinsey Reports“ on sexual behaviour became Bestsellers, Alfred B. Kinsey was author, 90 percent males; 50 percent women had sex bevor marriage, 50 percent males 26 percent women admitted adultery,

The Hays Code  founded by Republican Will Hays, Motion Picture production Code, regulated what could be shown in films, no nakedness and sexuality, no violence and crime, no drug use, no criticism of marriage, MPAA Film Rating System since 1968 (Hays Code over), voluntary scheme not inforced by law, „The Seven Year Itch“  movie with Marilyn Monroe, showed adultery, „abscenity“ bathtub Scene, Music was censored as well  Elvis Presley, King of Rock and Roll, Elvis the Pelvis, mostly shown from his hips upwards, Icon of Youth Protest, Ethniticity, played Music of „black“ People,

Civil rights movements since 1840s

American Civil War: 1861 – 1865!!!, North (Rich) against South (Slaves), ended with 13th Amendment to US Constitution, Slavery shall not exist anymore, illegal, not really in real life, era after civil war: The Reconstruction Era (1865-1880s), marked by racist Sentiment and restistace to equal rights for African Americans, Pictures Harpers Weekly „Peace, Right“ in the Background, Blacks are fighting, chaos; African American as a violent Person, disturbing peace“, Militant resistance from Whites, The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) founded 1865, aiming at killing African Americans, rightwing organization, „purification of american Society“, 4.5 mio members, still existant,

  • Environmentalism: Preservation of natural resources, protection of Environment, first national park in the world Yellowstone National Park 1872, beginning of awareness to protect Environment, 1890s parks founded  Yosemite National Park, US President Teddy Roosevelt, under Roosevelt 128 mio Acres of forest were set aside, several national parks founded, wildlife sancturies, related movement 70 years later green movement, global movement, 1960/70s, think globally; act locally!!!, annual earth day (April 22), first in 1970, Support for environmental protection, worldwide green movement, 335.000 members in US, 2.9 mio votes in 2000 US elections (Ralph Nader)

  • Social Welfare: Improvement of working conditions, economic Reform, no child work, growing awareness for Problems of the working class, 75% of New Yorkers lived under not acceptable conditions, poor, founding of American socialist Party (Eugene Debs) 1901, Progressive Party (Bull Moose Party) 1912 (Teddy Roosevelt, Jane Addams)  19% of voters, Improvement of working conditions, end child labour, 1918  almost every state banned child labour, reduction of womens working hours, following a Supreme Court decision, hero of the labour movement  Mother Jones (1830-1930), most prominent Union leaders, organizer for united mine workers, leftwing Journal that is named after mother Jones,

African American Activism, Abolitionism, anti-slavery movement, abolish slavery,started before civil war, influencial Abolitionist  Frederick Douglass first African American who ran for vice president, African American author and activist  W.E.B. (William Edward Burghardt) Du Bois, historian, believed in necessity to work together if youre black, studied in Berlin, „The Souls of Black Folk“, academic and personal essays, Pan-African Movement (encouraging solidarity of Africans worldwide), co-founded organization NAACP, black Liberation movement, Du Bois and Mary White Ovington (White) 1909, a lot more members today, achieve equality along „races“, lawsuits, stipends for qualified black scholars, early to mid 20s of African Americans dominated by Racial Violence (daily thread to your life), Lynching hanged on a tree - lynching, song about it, Anti-Black Laws, Segregation, Jim Crow  pejorative Expression for African American since 1830s, term for Blacks, Jim Crow Laws  imploment racial Segregation, „seperate but equal“, Schools, Transportation, public places, inhibited blacks from exercising rights, 1950/60s  A Divided Country, For/against equality, Famous cases of Lynching  Emmett Till, said „bye Baby“ to female shopkeeper, chased by her husband, mutulated, killed, thrown in river, funeral with open casket, 10000 people attended  raise awareness, 3 civil rights movement (2 whites) killed by the KKK in Mississippi, went there to protest, Result  Acts passed by government, Civil Rights Act (1964) outlawed discrimination against women and blacks, Voting Rights Act 1965, outlawed voting practices, 1933-1945: President Franklin D. Roosevelt(democrat), 1945-53: Harry S. Truman (Democrat,Hirsoshima, Nagasaki, „Fair Deal“), 1953-61: Dwight D. Eisenhower (repubilcan) (economic stability!!), 1961-63: John F. Kennedy (democrat) (New Frontier  Space), Political Changes: Brown vs.

Progress and Technology

John Gast, American Progress Picture

Electric Telegraph (developed in 1830s, patented by Morse in 1840) first Long distance telegraph line from Washington to Baltimore, „What hath God wrought“, Speedy Transmission of News, journalistic purposes, Background: Industrialization,

Industrial Revolution: Development of new processes of manufacturing, spreading of new Technologies, in USA: 1820s, UK: 1760s, American Industrial Revolution, Economic Growth in the US since 1820, American System of free Enterprise, Individuals could acquite Capital and decide how to use it, Low taxes (incentive for entrepreneurs to invest), Limitation of liability for Investors (if bankrupt, would lose Money, not be responsible for companys debt), most dramatic Invention in 1876  Invention of the Telephone „COme here Watson I want you“, Alexander Graham Bell, 1904 over 3 mio. phones connected in USA, 1914: America world leader in telephone density, other Inventions in 1870/80s  Thomas Alva Edison!! Phonograph 1877, Perfection of the Lightbulb 1879, Electric Generator 1879, Electric power came to New York customers 1882, Arc lighting of Broadway 1880, Lamp Systems in Philadelphia, Baltimore,… 1880s,

Technology and the atomic age (1940s-50s)

Power for Progress, Atomic age  Era following the Detonation of the first atomic Bomb during a test on July 16th 194 ?, 1942-46, The Manhattan Project secret US Project to design first nuclear bombs, Julius R Oppenheimer directed it „father of atomic bomb“!, why did they develop the atomic bomb? Fear that nazis might develop the atomic bomb, letter by albert Einstein to us president, term „The Atomic Bomb“ from 1914, from british author, Atomic Bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki  Japan, „liitle Boy“ in Hiroshima, killed 166000 people, 1945, August 6th, Nagasaki „fat man“, 80000 people killed, Aug 9th, 1945, J-Day, Which President ordered that dropping? Harry S. Truman, The Nuclear Arms Race, 1949  Soviets developed their own ATomic Bomb, 1952  Building the Hydrogen Bomb (USA), Marshall Islands in pacific, 100 times more powerful, 5x as hot as the sun, „Father of Hydrogen Bomb“  Edward Teller!!!, „Duck and Cover“ spots in 1951 starring „there was a turtle by the Name of Bert“, when theres an atomic bomb Explosion just duck and cover yourself, Illusion of safety, protection  Fall-out Shelters, Buried Steel Tanks, with emergency Provisions, survive for a few days, water, canned goods, National Craze, 200000 American families had shelters in 1960, Symbol  Atom, Basic unit of matter, central nucleus surrounded with Cloud, atomic energy used in 5 sectors : Warfare, Electricity, Farming (radioactive materials to make crops grow faster), Healing (Medicine), Research, even used in cosmetics  cleansing cream, radioactive dust in it, Belittlement of Dangers of Radioactivity, Picture of Pin Up looking at her own XRay, what should you buy children for Christmas? An Atomic Energy Lab, included a „Geiger Counter“ detect the radioactivity of watchs luminous paint, samples of radioactive subastances, atomic Tests, People would go and watch, Nuclear test „Dog“ in Nevada 1951, many spectators, only 6 miles away from the blast, Tourist attractions for visitors in Las Vegas, „Keep watching the skies“  led to another cold war phenomenon, businessman Kenneth Arnold reportedly see 1947? 9 glistening, Disc like UFOs, Unindentified Flying Object, „Encounters of the third Kind“ 1947  the Roswell Incident, object near village roswell in new mexico, crashed, was only a weather balloon, People convinced it was an Ufo, UFO Sightings in USA multiplied, 1950-59 650 reports every year!, 50s, US Air Force sent over 500000 dollars to investiagte, Films: Flying Saucers, scream queen, 1950s Golden Age of Science Fiction, many low-budget productions, Ed Wood Director, worst director with worst film of all times, plan 9 from outer sapce, Background of scifi, batlle of superpowers, the Sputnik Crisis, forst Satellite from Soviets, 1957, Russians were ahead of US, Russian dog Laika, sent to outer space, fascination with new Technologies, eg 3D, Three-Dimensional Cinema, first 3D film 1920s, The Power of Love, first Feature-lenghth 3D film: Bwana Devil, Film beacme spectacular Event „It came from outer space“, Exploration of outer space: US President John F Kennedy, Democratic, term „New Frontier“ would be outer space, wanna go to Mars, the Moon, uncharted Areas of science and space, NASS (National Aeronautics and Space Administartion), founded by Eisenhauer, Expansion of US Space Program, Alan Shepard was first american in space, 1961, President Kennedy, First American to walk on the moon: Neil Armstrong, Apollo Program, Apollo 11 Mission „Thats one small step for a man, one gian leap for mankind“, Ronald Reagan, 1981-1989, first Democratic, then switched to Republican, „Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), develop weapons that could intercept and destroy incoming Missiles nickname „star wars“

The Computer Age, first large-scale digital Computer was a big as a house „Eniac“ developed since 1942, Operated from 1946-1955, main function  Military, providing data for Military, the digital Revolution, first Laptop: 1975 IBM 5100, first portable Computer, Silicon Valley (southern aprt of SF Bay), Intel 1968, Apple 1976 Stephen Wozniak ans Steve Jobs founders, Microsoft was founded by Bill Gates in 1981, rise to Internet, mass medium, 1993 1 percent of worldwide data was transmittet via Internet, 2007: 97 percent, „Dot—com ecconomy“ (1997-2000), Technological Revoution: Smartphone-Revolution, first Smartphone ever: „Simon“ 1994, by IBM, 899 dollars, first modern Smartphone: apple iPhone 2007, also tablets in 2013, „Selfie“ term in 2005, 1839 first Selfie, photography of oneself, Obama and david cameron taking Selfie, taken at Nelson mandelas Memorial Service,

Cultures of protest


1950-2017

after ww2, the beat generation, group of intellectuals, writers, bohemian upper class rebellion, 1950, centres new york, san francisco, contempt for the rules of established society, search for blissful illumination, drugs, beat writers : jack kerouac, influenced by bebop jazz, buddhism, works: on the road, ., william s burroughs, naked lunch, obsessions:themes: sex, drugs, jazz, eastern religions, buddhism, zen buddhism, music as form of protest: combination of four music styles, blues, country music, gospel, rhythm, boogiewoogie, uptempo, fast, backbeatdriven rhythm, controversial, was banned in 1956, provocative, genre of rock and roll --> elvis presley, drug use, rebellious attitude, gasstation fight, was charged, sent to jail for one day, rebellion against older generation, little richard rocknroll musician, black, enfant terrible of rocknroll, tutti frutti song, jerry lee lewis, bad boy of rnr, great balls of fire song, 1980s protest music: rap and hip hop, can be traced to afican roots, oldschool rap, Run - D M C!!! new york based hip hop group 1982-2002!!!, public enemy, hiphop group from newyork, anti establishment, gangsta rap 1990-today, eminem: slim shady; marshall mathers, 

1960s, hipster became hippie, hippie movement, us youth movement, subculture in mid 1960s, centres new york city, san francisco, song about san fran, protesting with a flower, no guns, peaceful, famoud music festival --> woodstock music and art fair, 100000 visitors, santana, the who, joe cocker, jimi hendrix, flower power also connected to snit vietnam protest, mid 1950s 20 year war in vietnam, protest against cruelty, placing a flower in the barrel of a gun, massacre at my lai, 200 unarmed civilans man women children, killed, 1968, reported in us media, triggered student protests, 4 students were shot by soldiers in protest, students also protested against us invasion of cambodia, fight communism militarily, 

pop art another form of protest, cultural resistance, 1950-60s art movement, in usa, challenge to traditional art, included popular culture, before art was for upper class, comic books were seen as lower class, low and high culture would merge, roy liechtenstein!!!!!!! famous pop artist!!!, advertising, commercial culture, coca cola bottles were presented as art, history, atomic bomb, turn old photographs into art, andy warhol, american painter, film maker, record producer, pop art leading figure, everyday pieces into art, colours, same image 4 times different colours, produced records for rock group the velvet underground, experimental, 

neo-pop in  1980s,90s, jeff koons, american artist, known for aggresive self merchandising, marriage to italian pron star, sculpture about sex with her, photograph of the two, other colours, yorkshire terriers --> art, is this art?? challenge idea of art, neo pop artist dont critizise consumerism, accept it, micheal jackson and the bubbles, sculpture, mj and chimpanzee, most expensive work by koons, 

conceptual art, 1970/80s, more critical of consumer culture, barbara kruger, conceptual artist, us, critisizes superficiality of consumerism, is shallow, 'i shop therefore i am", refers to descartes 'i think therefore i am',  jenny holzer, artist, "protect me from what i want", commercials; advertisements are critisized, 

the era of pop stars 1970/80s, michael jackson, king of pop, thriller, best selling album of all times!!!!, the queen of pop, madonna, best selling female singer of all times, lady gaga, britney spears, rihanna, 

1960-1980s presidents, 1963-1969, lyndon b johnson, civil rights act, endorsed the vietnam war, democrat, 1969-1974, richard nixon, watergate affair; put bugs in a hotel room of democrate party, spied democrats, tried to scar off soviet union, visited china, made in china,  resigned from office under public pressure, republican, quaker religion, middle name 'M' Milhous, 1974-1977, gerald ford, pardon of nixon, was vice under nixon, republican, 1977-1981, jimmy carter, iran hostage crisis, democrate, nobel peace prize in 2002, opposition to death penalty, 

other social movements in 2000s, yes we can, obama,



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